What Is the Latin Word Order

One of the most commonly asked questions about Latin syntax is What is the word order? In an inflected language like Latin, the order of the words is less important than the ending regarding determining how each word functions in the sentence. A Latin sentence can be written subject first followed by the verb, followed by the object, just as in English. This form of the sentence is referred to as SVO. The Latin sentence can also be written a variety of other ways: English: The girl loves the dog. SVO Latin: Puella canem amat. SOVCanem puella amat. OSVAmat puella canem. VSOAmat canem puella. VOSCanem amat puella. OVSPuella amat canem. SVO Although the Latin word order is flexible, conventionally the Romans adhered to one of these forms for a simple declarative sentence, but with many exceptions. The most common form is the first Latin one above, SOV, (1): Puella canem amat. The ending on the nouns tells their roles in the sentence. The first noun, puella girl, is a singular noun in the nominative case, so it is the subject. The second noun, canem dog, has an accusative singular ending, so it is the object. The verb has a third person singular verb ending, so it goes with the subject of the sentence. Word Order Provides Emphasis Since Latin doesnt require word order for basic comprehension, the fact that there is a fallback word order suggests that there is something word order does that the inflection doesnt do. Latin word order is varied to emphasize particular words or for variety. Postponement, placing of words in unexpected positions, and juxtaposition were ways Romans achieved emphasis in their sentences, according to an excellent, public domain online Latin grammar, A Latin Grammar, by William Gardner Hale and Carl Darling Buck. First and last words are most important in writing. Speech is different: When talking, people emphasize words with pauses and pitch, but regarding Latin, most of us are more concerned with how to translate or write it than how to speak it. The girl loves the dog is, superficially, a pretty boring sentence, but if the context were one where the expected object of her affection was a boy, then when you say the girl loves the dog, the dog is unexpected, and it becomes the most important word. To emphasize it you would say (2): Canem puella amat. If you had mistakenly thought the girl despised the dog, it would be the word love that required emphasis. The last place in the sentence is emphatic, but you could move it to an unexpected spot, at the front, to highlight further the fact that she loves it: (3): Amat puella canem. Further Details Lets add a modifier: You have a lucky (felix) girl who loves the dog today (hodie). You would say in the basic SOV format: (7): Puella felix canem hodie amat. An adjective modifying a noun, or a genitive governing it, generally follows the noun, at least for the first noun in the sentence. Romans often separated modifiers from their nouns, thereby creating more interesting sentences. When there are pairs of nouns with modifiers, the nouns, and their modifiers may be ringed (chiastic construction ABba [Noun1-Adjective1-Adjective2-Noun2]) or parallel (BAba [Adjective1-Noun1-Adjective2-Noun2]). Assuming we know that the girl is lucky and happy and the boy is the one who is brave and strong, (nouns A and a, adjectives B and b) you could write: (8): fortis puer et felix puella (BAba parallel)strong boy and fortunate girl(9): puer fortis et felix puella (ABba chiastic)boy strong and fortunate girlHere is a variation on the same theme:(10): Aurea purpuream subnectit fibula vestem (BbAa) This is a so-called silver line.golden purple ties brooch garmentA golden brooch ties the purple garment.It is a line of Latin written by a master of Latin poetry, Vergil (Virgil) [Aeneid 4.139]. Here the verb precedes the subject-noun, which precedes the object-noun [VSO]. Hale and Buck provide other examples of variation on the SOV theme, which they say is rarely found, despite its being the standard. If youve been paying close attention, you may have wondered why I threw in the adverb hodie. It was to present the sentence ring that the subject-noun and verb form around their modifiers. Just as the adjective goes after the emphasized first word, so the modifier of the verb precedes the emphatic final position (Noun-Adjective-Adverb-Verb). Hale and Buck elaborate with the following useful rules for modifiers of the verb: a. The normal order of the modifiers of the verb and the verb itself is:1. Remoter modifiers (time, place, situation, cause, means, etc.).2. Indirect object.3. Direct object.4. Adverb.5. Verb. Remember: Modifiers tend to follow their noun and precede their verb in the basic SOV sentence.Although SOV is the basic structure, you may not find it very often.

Divorce And Its Effects On Social Life - 1627 Words

Over the years, the topic of divorce has grown to become the essence of attention and discussions thus making it a serious social problem. Indisputably, divorces cause a lot of negative effects, such as, the impact on social life, a major contributor to serious health problems and even development and behavioral problems in the innocent children who involuntarily are dragged through the process. In the pages that follow, this paper will discuss both mental and physical challenges that marriages encounter and try to ascertain whether or not these strained marriages should be given a chance a recovery. Based on the definition obtained from ppsychologytoday.com Marriage is the process by which two people make their relationship public,†¦show more content†¦It is therefore extremely important to examine the reasons why an individual may have a change of heart about being with someone after exchanging vows to remain together until death. According to the legaldictionary.com th e legal grounds for termination of a marriage may be based on the fault of one or more parties demise of the relationship, or it may be no fault. Grounds for a fault divorce constitute adultery or infidelity, abandonment which represents the top reasons for divorce based on a study conducted by Austin-institute.org in 2014. 37% of the responders stated that Infidelity was the reason for requesting a divorce while abandonment represents 32% of the reason. Based on the same study the issue that has the least potential to cause a divorce was alcohol and drug abuse ranking the lowest with 23% (Austin-institute.org). There is multiple definition of the word abandonment, however, for the sake of this paper we will be using the definition obtained from the legaldictionary.com which states that marital abandonment occurs when a spouse leaves the home without the knowledge or consent of the other spouse. However, to prove abandonment, the innocent spouse must show that the accused spouse left voluntarily and had no true intention of returning. It must be noted that when a spouse leaves for military service, or flees to escape domestic abuse, it is notShow MoreRelatedDivorce Is A Social Problem1180 Words   |  5 Pages Divorce Maydelis Escalona Professor Dr. Joyce A. Wuaku SOCL 1020 Introduction to Sociology 8 January 2015 Table of Contents Introduction 3 Review of Literature 4 Conclusion 5 Reference List 6 â€Æ' Divorce Introduction Divorce is a legal action between to married people to end their marriage (Meyer, 2015). Divorce is a social problem in today’s society; it has become an epidemic (Alwin McCammon, 2003). 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Causes of Climate Change free essay sample

Causes of Climate Change Climate change is a long-term shift in weather conditions identified by changes in temperature, precipitation, winds, and other indicators. Climate change can involve both changes in average conditions and changes in variability, including, for example, extreme events. The earths climate is naturally variable on all time scales. However, its long-term state and average temperature are regulated by the balance between incoming and outgoing energy, which determines the Earths energy balance. Learn more about the Earths climate system here Any factor that causes a sustained change to the amount of incoming energy or the amount of outgoing energy can lead to climate change. As these factors are external to the climate system, they are referred to as climate forcers, invoking the idea that they force or push the climate towards a new long-term state either warmer or cooler depending on the cause of change. Different factors operate on different time scales, and n ot all of those factors that have been responsible for changes in earths climate in the distant past are relevant to contemporary climate change. Factors that cause climate change can be divided into two categories those related to natural processes and those related to human activity. In addition to natural causes of climate change, changes internal to the climate system, such as variations in ocean currents or atmospheric circulation, can also influence the climate for short periods of time. This natural internal climate variability is superimposed on the long-term forced climate change. * Natural Causes * Human Causes * Short lived and long lived climate forcers Natural Causes The Earths climate can be affected by natural factors that are external to the climate system, such as changes in volcanic activity, solar output, and the Earths orbit around the Sun. Of these, the two factors relevant on timescales of contemporary climate change are changes in volcanic activity and changes in solar radiation. In terms of the Earths energy balance, these factors primarily influence the amount of incoming energy. Volcanic eruptions are episodic and have relatively short-term effects on climate. Changes in solar irradiance have contributed to climate trends over the past century but since the Industrial Revolution, the effect of additions of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere has been about ten times that of changes in the Suns output. Human Causes Climate change can also be caused by human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and the conversion of land for forestry and agriculture. Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, these human influences on the climate system have increased substantially. In addition to other environmental impacts, these activities change the land surface and emit various substances to the atmosphere. These in turn can influence both the amount of incoming energy and the amount of outgoing energy and can have both warming and cooling effects on the climate. The dominant product of fossil fuel combustion is carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. The overall effect of human activities since the Industrial Revolution has been a warming effect, driven primarily by emissions of carbon dioxide and enhanced by emissions of other greenhouse gases. The build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has led to an enhancement of the natural greenhouse effect. It is this human-induced enhancement of the greenhouse effect that is of concern because ongoing emissions of greenhouse gases have the potential to warm the planet to levels that have never been experienced in the history of human civilization. Such climate change could have far-reaching and/or unpredictable environmental, social, and economic consequences. Short-lived and long-lived climate forcers Carbon dioxide is the main cause of human-induced climate change. It has been emitted in vast quantities from the burning of fossil fuels and it is a very long-lived gas, which means it continues to affect the climate system during its long residence time in the atmosphere. However, fossil fuel combustion, industrial processes, agriculture, and forestry-related activities emit other substances that also act as climate forcers. Some, such as nitrous oxide, are long-lived greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, and so contribute to long-term climate change. Other substances have shorter atmospheric lifetimes because they are removed fairly quickly from the atmosphere. Therefore, their effect on the climate system is similarly short-lived. Together, these short-lived climate forcers are responsible for a significant amount of current climate forcing from anthropogenic substances. Some short-lived climate forcers have a climate warming effect (positive climate forcers) while others have a cooling effect (negative climate forcers). If atmospheric levels of short-lived climate forcers are continually replenished by ongoing emissions, these continue to exert a climate forcing. However, reducing emissions will quite quickly lead to reduced atmospheric levels of such substances. A number of short-lived climate forcers have climate warming effects and together are the most important contributors to the human enhancement of the greenhouse effect after carbon dioxide. This includes methane and tropospheric ozone both greenhouse gases and black carbon, a small solid particle formed from the incomplete combustion of carbon-based fuels (coal, oil and wood for example). Other short-lived climate forcers have climate cooling effects, most notably sulphate aerosols. Fossil fuel combustion emits sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere (in addition to carbon dioxide) which then combines with water vapour to form tiny droplets (aerosols) which reflect sunlight. Sulphate aerosols remain in the atmosphere for only a few days (washing out in what is referred to as acid rain), and so do not have the same long-term effect as greenhouse gases. The cooling from sulphate aerosols in the atmosphere has, however, offset some of the warming from other substances. That is, the warming we have experienced to date would have been even larger had it not been for elevated levels of sulphate aerosols in the atmosphere.